An aromatic Mediterranean plant that produces long pods containing oblong, brownish seeds. The seeds have a slightly bitter taste and are roasted and ground and used as a flavouring in curries (ground fenugreek is frequently used in curry powder).
The leaves from the plant (often sold by the Hindi name, methi) can be used in salads and both fresh and dried leaves are used in Indian cookery. The seeds and the leaves have a strong aroma.
Sweet Potatoes at a shop in India.
Cultivation
An ornamental sweet potato of the "Ace of Spades" cultivarThe plant does not enjoy frost. It grows best at an average temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). Depending on the cultivar and conditions, tuberous roots mature in two to nine months. With care, early-maturing cultivars can be grown as an annual summer crop in temperate areas, such as the northern USA. Sweet potatoes rarely flower when the daylight is longer than 11 hours, as is normal outside of the tropics. They are mostly propagated by stem or root cuttings or by adventitious roots called "slips" that grow out from the tuberous roots during storage. True seeds are used for breeding only.
Under optimal conditions of 85 to 90 % relative humidity at 13 to 16 °C (55 to 61 °F), sweet potatoes can keep for six months. Colder temperatures injure the roots.
They grow well in many farming conditions and have few natural enemies; pesticides are rarely needed. They can be grown in poor soils with little fertilizer. Because they are sown by vine cuttings rather than seeds, sweet potatoes are relatively easy to plant. Because the rapidly growing vines shade out weeds, little weeding is needed, and farmers can devote time to other crops. In the tropics the crop can be maintained in the ground and harvested as needed for market or home consumption. In temperate regions sweet potatoes are most often grown on larger farms and are harvested before frosts set in.
China is the largest grower of sweet potatoes; providing about 80% of the world's supply, 130 million tons were produced in one year (in 1990; about half that of common potatoes). Historically, most of China's sweet potatoes were grown for human consumption, but now most (60%) are grown to feed pigs. The rest are grown for human food and for other products. Some are grown for export, mainly to Japan. China grows over 100 varieties of sweet potato.
After introduction there, sweet potatoes very early became popular in the islands of the Pacific ocean, from Japan to Polynesia. One reason is that they were a reliable crop in cases of crop failure of other staple foods due to typhoon flooding. They are featured in many favorite dishes in Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines , and other island nations. Indonesia, Vietnam, India, and some other Asian countries are also large sweet potato growers. Uganda (the third largest grower after Indonesia), Rwanda, and some other African countries also grow a large crop which is an important part of their peoples' diets. North and South America, the original home of the sweet potato, together grow less than three percent of the world's supply. Europe has only a very small sweet potato production, mostly in Portugal. In the Caribbean, a variety of the sweet potato called the boniato is very popular. Interestingly, the flesh of the boniato is cream-colored, rather than the more popular orange hue seen in other varieties. Boniatos aren't as sweet and moist as other sweet potatoes, but many people prefer their fluffier consistency and more delicate flavor. Boniatos have been grown throughout the subtropical world for centuries, but became an important commercial crop in Florida in recent years.
Sweet potatoes were an important part of the diet in the United States for most of its history, especially in the Southeast. In recent years however they have become less popular. The average per capita consumption of sweet potatoes in the United States is only about 1.5-2 kg (4 lbs) per year, down from 13 kg (31 lb) in 1920. Southerner Kent Wrench writes: "The SweetPotato became associated with hard times in the minds of our ancestors and when they became affluent enough to change their menu, the potato was served less often."
Nutrition and health benefits
Besides simple starches, sweet potatoes are rich in complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, beta carotene (a vitamin A equivalent nutrient), vitamin C, and vitamin B6.
In 1992, the Center for Science in the Public Interest compared the nutritional value of sweet potatoes to other vegetables. Considering fiber content, complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins A and C, iron, and calcium, the sweet potato ranked highest in nutritional value. According to these criteria, sweet potatoes earned 184 points, 100 points over the next on the list, the common potato.(NCSPC)
Sweet potato varieties with dark orange flesh have more beta carotene than those with light colored flesh and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa where Vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem. Despite the name "sweet", it may be a beneficial food for diabetics, as preliminary studies on animals have revealed that it helps to stabilize blood sugar levels and to lower insulin resistance.[1] Some Americans, including television personality Oprah Winfrey, are advocating increased consumption of sweet potatoes both for their health benefits and because of their importance in traditional Southern cuisine.
Uses
A sweet potato.The roots are most frequently boiled, fried, or baked. They can also be processed to make starch and a partial flour substitute. Industrial uses include the production of starch and industrial alcohol.
The term "bell pepper" is one of the many names for some fruits of the Capsicum annuum species of plants. The misleading name "pepper" (pimiento in Spanish) was given by Christopher Columbus upon bringing the plant back to Europe. At that time peppercorns were a highly prized condiment.
Today, the term "bell pepper" or "pepper" or "capsicum" is often used for any of the large bell shaped capsicum fruits, regardless of their color. In British English, the fruit is simply referred to as a "pepper", whereas in many Commonwealth of Nations countries, such as Australia, India, Malaysia and New Zealand, they are called "capsicum". Across Europe, the term "paprika", which has its roots in the word for pepper, is used—sometimes referred to by their color (e.g. "groene paprika", "gele paprika", in Dutch, which are green and yellow, respectively). Paprika also refers to the powdered spice made from the same fruit. In the United States and Canada, the fruit is often referred to simply as a "pepper" or referred to by color (e.g. "red pepper", "green pepper"), although the more specific term "bell pepper" is understood in most regions.
In parts of the U.S. around southern Ohio, Northeastern Pennsylvania and northern Kentucky the term "mangoes" (or "mangos") has sometimes been used to refer to bell peppers. However, as the actual mango fruit has become more common in the region, this usage has faded.
In Russia it is commonly called (bolgarskiy perets), meaning Bulgarian pepper. In France, it is called poivron, with the same root as poivre (meaning black pepper). In Denmark the bell pepper is referred to as "peberfrugt", meaning pepper-fruit.
In Brazil it´s commonly called Pimentão, meaning Big pepper. It´s widely used in a variety of dishes, like pasta, rice and other dishes from Cuisine of Brazil.
Bell peppers are a great source of vitamin C. Green bell peppers have twice the vitamin C of citrus fruits by weight, and red bell peppers have three times what the green bell varieties have.
Varieties
The color can be green, red, yellow, orange and, more rarely, white, purple, blue, and brown, depending on when they are harvested and the specific cultivar. Green peppers are unripe bell peppers, while the others are all ripe, with the color variation based on cultivar selection. Because they are unripe, green peppers are less sweet and slightly more bitter than yellow, orange, purple or red peppers. The taste of ripe peppers can also vary with growing conditions and post-harvest storage treatment; the sweetest are fruit allowed to ripen fully on the plant in full sunshine, while fruit harvested green and after-ripened in storage are less sweet. Peppers are native to Central and South America. Pepper seeds were later carried to Spain in 1493 and from there spread to other European and Asian countries
Sweet onion is a variety of onion that is not pungent. There are several varieties of sweet onion. Although all onions have sugar, sweet onions have a very low sulfur content as compared to typical onions. Also, the water content is comparatively very high. These differences emphasize the sweetness of the onion.
Origins in the Americas
American sweet onions appear to have originated in three places, all around the year 1900.
Nevada
Nevada's Mason Valley claims to grow the highest quality sweet onions in North America. The high desert soil born from volcanic activity is the primary source of nutrition needed to grow sweet onions, altough it's a long day sweet onion and lacks the flat shape of the Granex varieties such as Vidalia. The most popular sweet onion from Nevada is the Sweetie Sweet, available from September through January.
New Mexico
The Carzalia Sweet onion produced by Carzalia Valley Produce is known as the "True Summer Sweet onion". Carzalia Valley Produce established in 1918 near the small border town of Columbus, New Mexico, USA, by WR Johnson and Sons. Carzalia Valley Produce says they "try to keep pace of the ever-changing produce world."
Carzalia Valley Produce grows a wide variety of onions: yellow, red, white and the ever popular “Carzalia Sweet” onion. Carzalia sweet onions are available at retailers throughout the United States from May through September.
Texas
The Bermuda onion was first harvested in Texas in 1898, with seeds imported from Bermuda. The first harvest was sent primarily to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where they were very well received, prompting Texas to increase the area used for growing the onion. The three main breeds grown in Texas around the turn of the century were the Yellow Bermuda, the White Bermuda, and the Crystal Wax.
Walla Walla
The Walla Walla Sweet Onion originated on the island of Corsica, off the west coast of Italy. A French soldier named Peter Pieri found an Italian sweet onion seed and brought it to the Walla Walla Valley around 1900.
Impressed by the new onion's winter hardiness, Pieri, and the Italian immigrant farmers who comprised much of Walla Walla's gardening industry, harvested the seed. The sweet onion developed over several generations through the process of carefully hand selecting onions from each year's crop, ensuring exceptional sweetness, jumbo size and round shape.
Sweetie Sweet Onion
The Sweetie Sweet is an exclusive variety sweet onion grown in the fertile soil of the Mason Valley in Yerington, Nevada. This is a true sweet onion that is trademarked to Peri & Sons Farms, Inc. The Sweetie Sweet onion can be found in marketplaces throughout the U.S. from September through the end of January.
Carzalia Sweet Onion
The Carzalia Sweet Onion is a variety of sweet onions grown in southern New Mexico. An extensive irrigation network, climate and fertile soil of southern New Mexico, combined to create one of the finest sweet onions available. A family has worked on this onion for generations.
Vidalia Onion
A Vidalia onion can be any one of several yellow Granex varieties but fresh onions can be labeled as a "Vidalia" onion only if grown in an exclusive 20-county production region in the state of Georgia as defined by both state Georgia and federal law United States Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). An advisory panel consisting of growers and industry researchers suggests seed varieties to the Georgia Commissioner of Agriculture each year. The varieties must first undergo rigorous testing procedures and then, after panel recommendation, be approved by the Commissioner.
Vidalia onions were first grown near Vidalia, Georgia in the early 1930s. However, they did not gain widespread recognition until the 1980s when a group of growers banded together to seek legal protection of the name and growing region. At that time, the Vidalia Onion Committee was formed to market and promote Vidalias nationwide.
Glennville Sweet Onion
The Glennville sweet onion, a competitor of the famous Vidalia onion, is grown in Tattnall County, in Glennville, Georgia which is next door to Toombs County.
Maui Onion
Maui Onion are one of the smaller varieties of sweet onions grown on the Hawaiian island of Maui. They are trademarked to Kula-grown onions. Maui onion fans claim that the fertile volcanic soil contributes to making these the very sweetest of all onion varieties, and that once peeled, they can be "eaten like apples".
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Why must people suffer the tears and stinging eyes that result from slicing and dicing onions? It seems a shame that the painful preparation of this tasty vegetable prevents some people from cooking and eating onions. Until now there has never been a completely effective strategy to cut onions without crying. This disclosure is for those who want to enjoy onions without the discomfort associated with chopping them up; it will show you how to easily cut onions without any tears from anyone.
What causes the onion to act as a tear-gas bomb? There are juices and chemicals inside the onion's tissues; when your knife breaks the onion's cells a certain compound becomes airborne as a fine mist. This compound is called propanethial-S-oxide, which is a type of sulfoxide. When the misty droplets encounter a wet surface (your eyes or nose membranes) it dissolves into a form of sulfuric acid, which is understandably irritating to your sensitive organs.
What can be done to obviate this dilemma? Much like the cure to stop hiccups, it seems that everyone has her own folk remedy handed down from old wives to their daughters over the generations. Some are good and some are foolish, but none are completely effective. The first consideration is that some people are hardly affected at all, while others are overly sensitive to the onion vapors. To the former this onion thing is not a problem (although they may use one of the remedies out of habit); to the latter, only this new system will work (but if you can't even stand the onion juice on your hands you shouldn't be trying to cut them.) All the remedies that could be found will now be presented, in an order that roughly represents those methods from the ridiculous to the reasonable.
And now the answer you've all been waiting for:
The heat and flames draw in the onion mist, burn it, and send it up with the rest of the flame exhaust. In the heat the chemical changes such that it no longer irritates the eyes. One could also use the hood exhaust fan while the burners are on. The only drawback with this solution is that some unlucky fools aren't cooking with gas. They could try an electric range on high, but it doesn't really work (better to use several candles instead.) A poor stove arrangement might make it difficult or force you to cut left handed, but it can usually be worked out (and you don't have to stand very close to the flame). As with the fan, you want the flame to pull the onion fumes away from your face. And as pertains to all methods, you want to keep your face as far away from the hacking and hewing action at the cutting board as you can. I have a range with four burners: two on the left and two on the right with a big space between them where I put the cutting board. I turn on the two right burners, stand a bit to the left, and cut with my right hand.
Description
The herbaceous, tendril-bearing vine grows to 5 m. It bears simple, alternate leaves 4-12 cm across, with 3-7 deeply separated lobes. Each plant bears separate yellow male and female flowers.
The fruit has a distinct warty looking exterior and an oblong shape. It is hollow in cross-section, with a relatively thin layer of flesh surrounding a central seed cavity filled with large flat seeds and pith. Seeds and pith appear white in unripe fruits, ripening to red; they are NOT intensely bitter and can be removed before cooking. However, the pith will become sweet when the fruit is fully ripen, and the pith's color will turn red. The pith can be eaten uncooked in this state, but the flesh of the melon will be far too tough to be eaten anymore. Red and sweet bitter melon pith is a popular ingredient in some special southeast Asian style salad. The flesh is crunchy and watery in texture, similar to cucumber, chayote or green bell pepper. The skin is tender and edible. The fruit is most often eaten green. Although it can also be eaten when it has started to ripen and turn yellowish, it becomes more bitter as it ripens. The fully ripe fruit turns orange and mushy, is too bitter to eat, and splits into segments which curl back dramatically to expose seeds covered in bright red pulp.
Bitter melon comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. The typical Chinese phenotype is 20 to 30 cm long, oblong with bluntly tapering ends and pale green in color, with a gently undulating, warty surface. The bitter melon more typical of India has a narrower shape with pointed ends, and a surface covered with jagged, triangular "teeth" and ridges. Coloration is green or white. Between these two extremes are any number of intermediate forms. Some bear miniature fruit of only 6 - 10 cm in length, which may be served individually as stuffed vegetables. These miniature fruit are popular in Southeast Asia as well as India.
Culinary uses
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 20 kcal 80 kJ
Carbohydrates 4.32 g
- Sugars 1.95 g
- Dietary fiber 2.0 g
Fat 0.18 g
- saturated 0.014 g
- monounsaturated 0.033 g
- polyunsaturated 0.078 g
Protein 0.84 g
Water 93.95 g
Vitamin A equiv. 6 μg 1%
Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.051 mg 4%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.053 mg 4%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.280 mg 2%
Vitamin B6 0.041 mg 3%
Folate (Vit. B9) 51 μg 13%
Vitamin B12 0 μg 0%
Vitamin C 33.0 mg 55%
Vitamin E 0.14 mg 1%
Vitamin K 4.8 μg 5%
Calcium 9 mg 1%
Iron 0.38 mg 3%
Magnesium 16 mg 4%
Phosphorus 36 mg 5%
Potassium 319 mg 7%
Sodium 6 mg 0%
Zinc 0.77 mg 8%
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Bitter melons are seldom mixed with other vegetables due to the strong bitter taste, although this can be moderated to some extent by salting and then washing the cut melon before use.
Bitter melon is often used in Chinese cooking for its bitter flavor, typically in stir-fries (often with pork and douchi), soups, and also as tea.
It is also a popular vegetable in Indian cooking, where it is often prepared with potatoes and served with yogurt on the side to offset the bitterness, or used in sabji. Bitter melon fried in oil and then stuffed with other spicy ingredients is very popular in Andhra Pradesh, a south Indian state.
Bitter melon is rarely used in mainland Japan, but is a significant component of Okinawan cuisine.
In Indonesia, bitter melon is prepared in various dishes, such as stir fry, cooked in coconut milk, or steamed.
In Vietnam, raw bitter melon slices consumed with dried meat floss and stuff to make bitter melon soup with shrimp are popular dishes.
It is prepared into various dishes in the Philippines, where it is known as ampalaya. Ampalaya may also be stir-fried with ground beef and oyster sauce, or with eggs and diced tomato. A very popular dish from the Ilocos region of the Philippines, pinakbet, consists mainly of bitter melons, eggplant, okra, string beans, tomatoes, lima beans, and other various regional vegetables stewed with a little bagoong-based stock.
The young shoots and leaves may also be eaten as greens; in the Philippines, where bitter melon leaves are most commonly consumed, they are called dahon (leaves) ng ampalaya. The seeds can also be eaten, and give off a sweet taste, but have been known to cause vomiting and stomach upset.
In Nepal bitter melon is prepared in various ways. Most prepare it as fresh achar (a type of salsa). For this the bitter gourd is cut into cubes or slices and sautéed covered in little bit of oil and sprinkle of water. When it is softened and water dries out, it is minced in tradition mortar with few cloves of garlic, salt and red or green pepper. Other way is the sautéed version. In this, bitter gourd is cut in thin round slices or cubes fried(sauted) with very less oil with some salt, cumin and red chili. It is fried until the vegetable softens and with hints of golden brown on the sides. It is even prepared as a curry on its own or with potato and made as stuffed vegetables.
In Pakistan bitter melon is available in the summertime and is cooked mostly with lots of onions. A traditional way to cook bitter melon curry is, to peel off the skin and cut into thin slices. Then it is salted and kept under the sun for few hours to reduce its bitterness to some extent. After few hours, its salty and bitter water is squeezed out (by pressing with the hands) and then bitter melon is washed with water for few times. The bitter melon is fried in cooking oil in a separate pan whereas lots of onions are fried in another pan. When onions are turned little pink in color, the fried bitter melon is added to them. After some frying both the onions and bitter melon, red chili powder, turmeric powder, salt, coriander powder and a pinch of cumin seeds are added. Now little water is sprinkled while frying the spices. Then a good amount of tomatoes is added to the curry and also the green chillies are added if one likes to. Now the pan is covered with a lid and heat is reduced to minimum so the tomatoes get tender and all spices could work their magic. The curry is stirred or fried for few times (at intervals) during this covering period. After half an hour or before, the curry is ready to serve. It is served with soft and hot flat breads and yogurt chutney.
Another dish in Pakistan calls for whole, unpeeled bitter melon to be boiled and then stuffed with cooked ground beef. In this dish, it is recommended that the bitter melon be left 'debittered'. It is either served with hot tandoori bread, naan, chappati, or with khichri (a mixture of lentils and rice).
Medicinal uses
Bitter melons have been used in various Asian traditional medicine systems for a long time . Like most bitter-tasting foods, bitter melon stimulates digestion. While this can be helpful in people with sluggish digestion, dyspepsia, and constipation, it can sometimes make heartburn and ulcers worse. The fact that bitter melon is also a demulcent and at least mild inflammation modulator, however, means that it rarely does have these negative effects, based on clinical experience and traditional reports.
Though it has been claimed that bitter melon’s bitterness comes from quinine, no evidence could be located supporting this claim. Bitter melon is traditionally regarded by Asians, as well as Panamanians and Colombians, as useful for preventing and treating malaria. Laboratory studies have confirmed that various species of bitter melon have anti-malarial activity, though human studies have not yet been published .
Laboratory tests suggest that compounds in bitter melon might be effective for treating HIV infection . As most compounds isolated from bitter melon that impact HIV have either been proteins or glycoproteins lectins), neither of which are well-absorbed, it is unlikely that oral intake of bitter melon will slow HIV in infected people. It is possible oral ingestion of bitter melon could offset negative effects of anti-HIV drugs, if a test tube study can be shown to be applicable to people . In one preliminary clinical trial, an enema form of a bitter melon extract showed some benefits in people infected with HIV (Zhang 1992). Clearly more research is necessary before this could be recommended.
The other realm showing the most promise related to bitter melon is as an immunomodulator. One clinical trial found very limited evidence that bitter melon might improve immune cell function in people with cancer, but this needs to be verified and amplified in other research . If proven correct this is another way bitter melon could help people infected with HIV.
Some claim bitter melon as "a cure for diabetes", although outside of anecdotal stories scientific evidence for this claim is limited. Studies so far demonstrate improvement but not cure in some diabetic parameters.
Various cautions are indicated. The seeds contains vicine and therefore can trigger symptoms of favism in susceptible individuals. In addition, the red arils of the seeds are reported to be toxic to children, and the fruit is contraindicated during pregnancy.
Various potato dishes.
Potato is the term which applies either to the starchy tuberous crop from the perennial plant Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family, or to the plant itself. Potato is the world's most widely grown tuber crop, and the fourth largest food crop in terms of fresh produce — after rice, wheat, and maize (corn).
The potato originated in the area of contemporary Peru and Bolivia, identified more specifically in research published by David Spooner in 2005 as an area of southern Peru, just north of Lake Titicaca. The potato was introduced to Europe around 1700, and subsequently by European mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. Thousands of varieties persist in the Andes, where over 100 varieties might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.
Once established in Europe, potato soon became an important food staple and field crop. Lack of genetic diversity, due to the fact that very few varieties were initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a fungal disease, Phytophthora infestans, also known as late blight, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland, resulting in the Great Irish Famine. The potato is also strongly associated with Idaho, Maine, North Dakota, Prince Edward Island, Ireland, Jersey and Russia because of its large role in the agricultural economy and history of these regions. But in recent decades, the greatest expansion of potato has been in Asia, where as of 2007 approximately eighty percent of the world potato crop is grown. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, China has become the world's largest potato producer, followed by India.
Description
Flowers of a potato plant.Potato plants grow high to the ground and bear yellow to silver flowers with yellow stamens.
Potatoes are cross-pollinated mostly by bumblebees that carry pollen from other potato plants, but a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Any potato variety can also be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers, cut to include at least one or two eyes, or also by cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers.
Some commercial potato varieties do not produce seeds at all (they bear imperfect flowers) and are propagated only from tuber pieces. Confusingly, these tubers or tuber pieces are called "seed potatoes".
After potato plants flower, some varieties will produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes. Each fruit can contain up to 300 true seeds. One can separate seeds from the fruits by putting them in a blender on a slow speed with some water, then leaving them in water for a day so that the seeds will sink and the rest of the fruit will float. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true seed" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. Potato fruit contains large amounts of the toxic alkaloid solanine, and is therefore unsuitable for consumption.
Origin and history
Potato plant
Potato sprout closeupThere is general agreement among contemporary botanists that the potato originated in the Andes, all the way from Colombia and Venezuela to Chile and northern Argentina, but with a concentration of genetic diversity, both in the form of cultivated and wild species, in the area of modern day Peru. The evidence thus far shows that the potato was first cultivated in Peru some 7,000 years ago.
The potatoes cultivated in the Andes are not all the same species. However, the major species grown worldwide is Solanum tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes). Modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated worldwide. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): Solanum stenotomum, Solanum phureja, Solanum goniocalyx and Solanum ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): Solanum chaucha and Solanum juzepczukii. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): Solanum curtilobum.
There are two major subspecies of Solanum tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean. [8] The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated. The Chilean potato is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile, especially on Chiloe Island where it is thought to have originated. The Andean variety of tuberosum was the variety first introduced to Europe by way of the Canary Islands and Spain as early as 1700, and dominated European production until a few decades before the Irish Potato Famine, according to recently-published DNA analysis. The same research shows that in the early 19th century, the Chilean variety of tuberosum, adapted to long-day growing conditions, was introduced to Europe. It quickly replaced the Andean short-day variety. Today, over 99% of all cultivated potato varieties worldwide are descendants of the Chilean variety.
Historical and genetic evidence suggests that the potato reached India not very much later than Europe, taken there by either the British or the Portuguese. Genetic studies show that all 32 varieties of potato grown in India derive from the Chilean subspecies. The earliest unequivocal reference to the potato in India is in an 1847 British journal.
There are about five thousand potato varieties world wide. Three thousand of them are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the five thousand cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties, which has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species.
Potatoes are occasionally referred to as "Irish" potatoes in the English speaking world because in the earliest years, this signified a distinction from sweet potatoes. Potatoes were widely grown in Ireland after they were introduced, but in 1845, potato blight devastated the crop, precipitating the the six-year-long Great Irish Famine.
Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources. However, at least one wild potato species, Solanum fendleri, is found as far north as Texas and used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species attacking cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species are found that have been used extensively in modern breeding, such as the hexaploid Solanum demissum, as a source of resistance to the devastating late blight disease. Another plant native to this region, Solanum bulbocastanum, a close relative of the potato, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to effectively resist potato blight.
The potato became an important staple crop in northern Europe as the climate changed due to the Little Ice Age, when traditional crops in this region did not produce as reliably as before. At times when and where most other crops would fail, potatoes could still typically be relied upon to contribute adequately to food supplies during the colder years. The potato was not popular in France during this time, and it is believed that some of the infamous famines could have been lessened if French farmers had adopted it. Today, the potato forms an important part of the traditional cuisine of the British Isles, northern Europe, central Europe and eastern Europe. As of 2007, Germany has a higher consumption of potato per capita than any other country.
Nutrition
The toxic fruits produced by mature potato plantsPotato, raw, with peel
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 80 kcal 320 kJ
Carbohydrates 19 g
- Starch 15 g
- Dietary fiber 2.2 g
Fat 0.1 g
Protein 2 g
Water 75 g
Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.08 mg 6%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.03 mg 2%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.1 mg 7%
Vitamin B6 0.25 mg 19%
Vitamin C 20 mg 33%
Calcium 12 mg 1%
Iron 1.8 mg 14%
Magnesium 23 mg 6%
Phosphorus 57 mg 8%
Potassium 421 mg 9%
Sodium 6 mg 0%
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Nutritionally, potatoes are best known for their carbohydrate content (approximately 26 grams in a medium potato). Starch is the predominant form of carbohydrate found in potatoes. A small but significant portion of the starch in potatoes is resistant to enzymatic digestion in the stomach and small intestine and, thus, reaches the large intestine essentially intact. This resistant starch is considered to have similar physiological effects and health benefits of fiber (e.g., provide bulk, offer protection against colon cancer, improve glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, lower plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations, increase satiety, and possibly even reduce fat storage) (Cummings et al. 1996; Hylla et al 1998; Raban et al. 1994). The amount of resistant starch found in potatoes is highly dependent upon preparation methods.
Various potato dishes.Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to break down the starch. Most potato dishes are served hot, but some are first cooked then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chips/crisps.
Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiled or steamed potatoes; French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasted; scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and still retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided that they are covered in ventilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping—this method produces a meal very similar to a steamed potato while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient.
Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.
CultivationAt harvest time, gardeners generally dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e. a spading fork, or a potato hook which is similar to the graip, except the tines are at a 90 degree angle to the handle as is the blade of a hoe. In larger plots, the plow can serve as the most expeditious implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters which scoop up the plant and the surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs employ different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system or "Flying Willard" to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.
Correct potato husbandry is an arduous task in the best of circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. Potatoes are the most fruitful of the root crops, but much care and consideration is needed to keep them satisfied and fruitful.
It is important to harvest potatoes before heavy frosts begin, since field frost damages potatoes in the ground, and even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.
Seed potato crops are 'rogued' in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.
Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of decomposition, which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area is dark, well ventilated and for long-term storage maintained at temperatures near 40°F (4°C). For short-term storage prior to cooking, temperatures of about 45-50°F (7-10°C) are preferred. Temperatures below 40°F (4°C) convert potatoes' starch into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes.
Under optimum conditions possible in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to six months, but several weeks is the normal shelf life in homes. If potatoes develop green areas or start to sprout, these areas should be trimmed before using.
FAO reports that the world production of potatoes in 2005 was 319 million tonnes. The largest producer, China, accounted for one-fourth of the global output followed by Russia and India.
Varieties
Potatoes have been bred into many standard or well-known varieties, each of which have particular agricultural or culinary attributes. Varieties are generally categorized into a few main groups, such as Russets, Reds, Whites, Yellows (aka Yukons), and Purples based on common characteristics.
Genetic research on the potato has resulted in at least one genetically-modified variety, the New Leaf, owned by Monsanto corporation.
Potatoes of all varieties are generally cured after harvest to thicken the skin. Prior to curing, the skin is very thin and delicate. These potatoes are sometimes sold as "New Potatoes" and are particularly flavorful. New potatoes are often harvested by the home gardener or farmer by "grabbling", i.e. pulling out the young tubers by hand while leaving the plant in place. In additions, markets may sometimes present various thin-skinned potato varieties as "new potatoes".
Some horticulturists sell chimeras, made by grafting a tomato plant onto a potato plant, producing both edible tomatoes and potatoes. This practice is not very widespread.
The cabbage (Brassica oleracea Capitata Group) is a plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae). It is a herbaceous, biennial, and dicotyledonous flowering plant with leaves forming a characteristic compact cluster. Cabbages grown late in autumn and in the beginning of winter are called coleworts.
The cabbage is derived from a leafy wild mustard plant, native to the Mediterranean region. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans; Cato the Elder praised this vegetable for its medicinal properties, declaring that "it is first of all the vegetables".[1]. The English name derives from the Normanno-Picard caboche ("head"). Cabbage was developed by ongoing artificial selection for suppression of the internode length. The dense core of the cabbage is called the babchka. It is related to the turnip.
Uses
The only part of the plant that is normally eaten is the leafy head; more precisely, the spherical cluster of immature leaves, excluding the partially unfolded outer leaves. The so-called 'cabbage head' is widely consumed raw, cooked, or preserved in a great variety of dishes. Cabbage is a leaf vegetable.
Raw
Raw cabbage is usually sliced into thin strips or shredded for use in salads, such as coleslaw. It can also replace iceberg lettuce in sandwiches. Cabbage is an excellent source of Vitamin C.
Cooked
Cabbage is often added to soups or stews. Cabbage soup is popular in central Europe and eastern Europe, and cabbage is an ingredient in some kinds of borscht. Cabbage is also used in many popular dishes in India. Boiling tenderizes the leaves and releases sugars, which leads to the characteristic "cabbage" aroma. Boiled cabbage has become stigmatized in North America because of its strong cooking odor and the belief that it causes flatulence. Boiled cabbage as an accompaniment to meats and other dishes can be an opportune source of vitamins and dietary fiber. Stuffed cabbage is an East European delicacy. The leaves are softened by parboiling or placing the whole head of cabbage in the freezer, and then filled with chopped meat and/or rice.
Fermented and preserved
Cabbage is the basis for the German sauerkraut and Korean kimchi. To pickle cabbage it is placed in a jar, covered with water and salt, and left in a warm place for several days to ferment. Sauerkraut was historically prepared at home in large batches, as a way of storing food for the winter. Cabbage can also be pickled in vinegar with various spices, alone or in combination with other vegetables. Korean baechu kimchi is usually sliced thicker than its European counterpart, and the addition of onions, chilies, minced garlic and gingers is common.
Medicinal properties
In European folk medicine, cabbage leaves are used to treat acute inflammation.[2] A paste of raw cabbage may be placed in a cabbage leaf and wrapped around the affected area to reduce discomfort. Some claim it is effective in relieving painfully engorged breasts in breastfeeding women.[3]
Cabbage contains significant amounts glutamine, an amino acid, which has anti-inflammatory properties.
It is a source of indol-3-carbinol, or I3C, a compound used as an adjuvent therapy for recurrent respiratory papillomatosis, a disease of the head and neck caused by human papillomavirus (usually types 6 and 11) that causes growths in the airway that can lead to death.
Varieties
There are many varieties of cabbage based on shape and time of maturity. Traditional varieties include "Late Flat Dutch", "Early Jersey Wakefield" (a conical variety), "Danish Ballhead" (late, round -headed). Savoy Cabbage has a round head with crinkled leaves. Red cabbage is a small, round headed type with dark red leaves. Krautman is the most common variety for commercial production of sauerkrauts.
Cultivation
Garden of flowering kale, a member of the cabbage family, in Shanghai, China.Broadly speaking, cabbage varieties come in two groups, early and late. The early varieties mature in about 45 days. They produce small heads which do not keep well and are intended for consumption while fresh. The late cabbage matures in about 87 days, and produces a larger head.
Cabbage can be started indoors or sowed directly. Like all brassicae, cabbage is a cool season crop, so early and late plantings do better than those maturing in the heat of the summer.
Control of insect pests is important, particularly in commercial production where appearance is a driver of success. The pesticides sevin and malathion are both listed for use on cabbage. The caterpillars of some butterflies in the family Pieridae (the "whites") feed on brassicas and can be serious pests; see also List of Lepidoptera that feed on Brassica.
Cabbages keep well and were thus a common winter vegetable before refrigeration and long-distance shipping of produce.
VVernonia is a genus of about 1000 species of forbs and shrubs in the family Asteraceae. Some species are sometimes known as ironweeds. Some species are edible and of economic value. They are known for having intense purple flowers. The genus is named for English botanist William Vernon. There are numerous distinct subgenera and subsections in this genus. This has led some botanists to divide this large genus into smaller groups which separate the species into distinct genera. For instance, the Flora of North America only recognizes about 20 species, 17 of which are in North America or n. Mexico, with the other two or three being found in South America.
Uses
Several species of Vernonia, including V. calvoana, V. amygdalina, and V. colorata, are eaten as leaf vegetables. Common names for these species include bitterleaf, ewuro, ndole and onugbu. They are common in most West African and Central African countries. They are one of the most widely consumed leaf vegetables of Cameroon, where they are a key ingredient of ndole stew. The leaves have a sweet and bitter taste. They are sold fresh or dried, and are a typical ingredient in egusi soup.
V. amygdalina is well known as a medicinal plant with several uses attributed to it, including for diabetes, fever reduction, and recently a non-pharmaceutical solution to persistent fever, headache, and joint pain associated with AIDS (an infusion of the plant is taken as needed). These leaves are exported from several African countries and can be purchased inexpensively in grocery stores aiming to serve African clients for about $1.50/225gm pkg. frozen. The roots of V. amygdalina have been used for gingivitis and toothache due to its proven antimicrobial activity.
V. galamensis is used as an oilseed in East Africa.
Before the primary European settlement of Aotearoa, around 1840, the taewa (riwai) was a staple food crop of the Maori. Taewa is a collective noun referring to the ‘Maori’ potato; a collection of varieties of Solanum tuberosum now cultivated by Maori for at least 200 years. Maori acknowledge that some varieties arrived with early explorers such as Captain James Cook and the French explorer, Marion de Fresne, along with sealers and whalers during the eighteenth century. Maori were quick to recognise the advantages these new introductions had over other traditional food sources.
There are many varieties of Maori potatoes, these include Tutaekuri (also known as Urenika), Makoikoi, Moe Moe, Raupi, Te Maori, Karuparera and Huakaroro – all have quite differing appearances.
what to look for
Choose even sized potatoes which are free of blemishes. Their unusual appearance sets them apart from standard potatoes. Differing varieties vary markedly in size, skin and flesh colour. Skin colour and size are also dependent on growing conditions, soil type and the weather. They usually have a purple / black skin, with deep-set eyes that are either purple or white. The flesh is waxy and coloured rich yellow, white, or purple. Like standard potatoes, flesh type ranges from waxy to floury-textured, however most varieties tend to be waxy.
how to keep
Maori potatoes do not need refrigeration, and are best stored in a cool, dark, dry place. They are best eaten within ten days of harvest.
nutritional value
Like potatoes, Maori potatoes are an excellent source of vitamin C and fibre. They also contain some potassium, thiamine, folate and magnesium. They are high in starch so they will stop you feeling hungry for a long time. Yellow flesh and / or red skinned potatoes are nutritionally preferable because of their higher antioxidant levels.
how to prepare
They boil and steam particularly well and taste reminiscent of new potatoes with sweet flavour and a smooth texture. The skin is very tender and peeling is both unnecessary and, because of their irregular shape, difficult.
ways to eat this vegetable
Maori potatoes tend to be incorporated into meals as we would other potatoes.
when you can get it
Maori potatoes are available in limited quantities with better supply in the summer months.
Vegetable generally refers to an edible part of a plant. The definition is traditional rather than scientific. It is somewhat arbitrary and subjective, as it is determined by individual cultural customs of cooking and food preparation.
In general, with some exceptions, any herbaceous plant or plant part which is regularly eaten as food by humans, would normally be considered to be a vegetable. Vegetables are very often eaten cooked. Some, such as potato, are never eaten raw, but many such as carrots, bell peppers and celery are quite commonly eaten either raw or cooked.
Mushrooms, though belonging to the biological kingdom Fungi, are also loosely considered as vegetables.
In general, vegetables are regarded by cooks as being most suitable for savory or salted dishes, rather than sweet dishes, although there are many exceptions, such as pumpkin pie, etc.
Nuts, seeds, grains, herbs, spices and culinary fruits (see below), are not normally considered to be vegetables, even though they are all parts of plants.
Some people would consider that salad greens such as lettuce are not vegetables, because they are almost never cooked, but not everyone would agree with this exception.
Venn diagram representing the relationship between "vegetables" in the culinary sense, and "fruits" in the botanical sense.
The word "vegetable" is a culinary term, not a botanical term. The word "fruit" on the other hand can be a culinary term or a botanical term.
Botanically speaking, fruits are fleshy reproductive organs of plants, the ripened ovaries containing one or many seeds. Thus, many botanical fruits are not edible at all, and some are actually extremely poisonous. In a culinary sense however, the word "fruit" is only applied to those botanical fruits which are edible, and which are considered to be a sweet or dessert food such as strawberries, peaches, plums etc.
In contrast to this, a number of edible botanical fruits, including the tomato, the eggplant, and the bell pepper are not considered to be a sweet or dessert food, are not routinely used with sugar, but instead are almost always used as part of a savory dish, and are salted. This is the reason that they are labeled as "vegetables".
In other words it is quite legitimate for a plant part to be scientifically referred to as a "fruit", even though it is used in cooking or food preparation as a vegetable.
The question "The tomato: is it a fruit, or is it a vegetable?" found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893. The court ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden, 1893, that a tomato is correctly identified as, and thus taxed as, a vegetable, for the purposes of the 1883 Tariff Act on imported produce. However, the court did acknowledge that botanically speaking, a tomato is a fruit.
